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Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg after their conviction
Born May 12, 1918(1918-05-12) (Julius)
September 28, 1915(1915-09-28) (Ethel)
New York City, New York, United States (both)
Died June 19, 1953 (aged 35) (Julius)
June 19, 1953 (aged 37) (Ethel)
Sing Sing (both)
Charge(s) Conspiracy to commit espionage
Penalty Capital punishment
Status Executed
Occupation Electrical engineer (Julius), Actress, Singer, Secretary (Ethel)
Children Michael Meeropol and Robert Meeropol

Julius Rosenberg (May 12, 1918 – June 19, 1953) and Ethel Greenglass Rosenberg (September 28, 1915 – June 19, 1953) were American communists who were executed after having been found guilty of conspiracy to commit espionage. The charges were in relation to the passing of information on the American atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Theirs was the first execution of civilians for espionage in United States history.[1]

The guilt of the Rosenbergs and the appropriateness of their sentence have been subject of perennial debate. Information released after the Cold War confirmed that he acted as a courier and recruiter for the Soviets.[2] Other atomic spies providing information to the Soviets were arrested but not executed. Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, who supplied the documents to Julius, served 15 years.[3] Harry Gold served 15 years in Federal prison as the courier for Klaus Fuchs.[4] Morton Sobell, who was tried with the Rosenbergs, served 17 years and 9 months.[5]

Contents

Background

Julius Rosenberg was born to a family of Jewish immigrants in New York City on May 12, 1918. His parents worked in the sweat shops of the Lower East Side. Julius became a leader in the Young Communist League where, in 1936, he met Ethel, whom he married three years later. He graduated from the City College of New York with a degree in electrical engineering in 1939 and joined the Army Signal Corps in 1940, where he worked on radar equipment.

Ethel Greenglass was born on September 28, 1915, in New York City, also to a Jewish family. She was an aspiring actress and singer, but eventually took a secretarial job at a shipping company. She became involved in labor disputes and joined the Young Communist League, USA, where she met Julius. The Rosenbergs had two sons named Robert and Michael, who were adopted by teacher and songwriter Abel Meeropol (and took the Meeropol surname) after their parents' execution.

According to his former NKVD handler, Alexandre Feklisov, Julius Rosenberg was originally recruited by the KGB on Labor Day 1942, by former NKVD spymaster Semyon Semenov.[6] Julius had been introduced to Semenov by Bernard Schuster, a high-ranking member of the Communist Party USA as well as Earl Browder's personal NKVD liaison, and after Semenov was recalled to Moscow in 1944, his duties were taken over by his apprentice, Feklisov.[6]

According to Feklisov, Julius provided thousands of classified reports from Emerson Radio, including a complete proximity fuze, the same design that was used to shoot down Gary Powers's U-2 in 1960. Under Feklisov's administration, Julius Rosenberg is said to have recruited sympathetic individuals to the KGB’s service, including Joel Barr, Alfred Sarant, William Perl and Morton Sobell.[7]

According to Feklisov's account, he was supplied by Perl, under Julius Rosenberg’s direction, with thousands of documents from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics including a complete set of design and production drawings for the Lockheed's P-80 Shooting Star. Feklisov says he learned through Julius that his brother-in-law David Greenglass was working on the top-secret Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory and used Julius to recruit him.[6]

The USSR and the U.S. became allies during World War II after Nazi Germany's surprise attack on the USSR in 1941, but the U.S. government was highly suspicious of Joseph Stalin's long-term intentions. Therefore the Americans did not share information or seek assistance from the Soviet Union for the Manhattan Project. However, the Soviets were aware of the project as a result of espionage penetration of the U.S. government and made a number of attempts to infiltrate its operations at the University of California, Berkeley. A number of project members—some high-profile, others lower in rank—did voluntarily give secret information to Soviet agents, many because they were sympathetic to Communism (or the Soviet Union's role in the war) and did not feel the U.S. should have a monopoly on atomic weapons.[8]

After the war, the U.S. continued to protect its nuclear secrets, but the Soviet Union was able to produce its own atomic weapons by 1949. The West was shocked by the speed with which the Soviets were able to stage their first nuclear test, "Joe 1." It was then discovered in January 1950 that a German refugee theoretical physicist working for the British mission in the Manhattan Project, Klaus Fuchs, had given key documents to the Russians throughout the war. Through Fuchs' confession, U.S. and United Kingdom intelligence agents were able to make a case against his alleged courier, Harry Gold, who was arrested on May 23, 1950. A former machinist at Los Alamos, Sergeant David Greenglass confessed to having passed secret information on to the USSR through Gold as well. Though he initially denied any involvement by his sister, Ethel Rosenberg, he claimed that her husband, Julius, had convinced his wife to recruit him while on a visit to him in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 1944 and that Julius had also passed secrets. Another accused conspirator, Morton Sobell, was on vacation in Mexico City when both Rosenbergs were arrested. According to his story published in On Doing Time, he tried to figure out a way to reach Europe without a passport but ultimately abandoned that effort and was back in Mexico City when he was kidnapped by members of the Mexican secret police and driven to the U.S. border where he was arrested. The government claimed he had been deported, but in 1956 the Mexican government officially declared that he had never been deported. Regardless of how he was returned to the U.S., he was arrested and stood trial with the Rosenbergs on one count of conspiracy to commit espionage.

Trial and conviction

Police photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest.
Police photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest.
Mugshot of Ethel Rosenberg.
Mugshot of Ethel Rosenberg.

The trial of the Rosenbergs and Sobell began on March 6, 1951. The judge was Irving Kaufman. The attorney for the Rosenbergs was Emanuel Hirsch Bloch.[9] The prosecution's primary witness, David Greenglass, stated that his sister Ethel typed notes containing U.S. nuclear secrets in the Rosenberg apartment in September 1945. He also asserted that a sketch he made of a cross-section of the implosion-type atom bomb (the one dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, as opposed to the "gun method" triggering device that was in the one dropped on Hiroshima) was also turned over to Julius Rosenberg at that meeting.

From the beginning, the trial attracted a high amount of media attention, like the trial of Alger Hiss. Aside from the Rosenbergs' own defense during the trial, there was not one single public expression of doubt as to their guilt in any media (even the left-wing and Communist press) before and during the trial. The first break in the media unanimity would not occur until August 1951, when a series of articles ran in the left-wing newspaper The National Guardian. Only after the publication of those articles was a defense committee formed.

However, between the trial and the executions there were widespread protests and claims of anti-Semitism. For example, Nobel Prize winner Jean-Paul Sartre called the case "a legal lynching which smears with blood a whole nation. By killing the Rosenbergs, you have quite simply tried to halt the progress of science by human sacrifice. Magic, witch-hunts, auto-da-fés, sacrifices — we are here getting to the point: your country is sick with fear... you are afraid of the shadow of your own bomb."[10] Others, including non-Communists such as Albert Einstein (at that time, a socialist) and Nobel-Prize-winning atomic scientist and chemist Harold Urey,citation needed as well as Communists or left-leaning artists such as Nelson Algren, Dashiell Hammett, Jean Cocteau, Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, protested the position of the American government in what some termed America's Dreyfus Affair. Pablo Picasso wrote for a French magazine, "The hours count. The minutes count. Do not let this crime against humanity take place."[11] Pope Pius XII also condemned the execution.[12] The all-black International Longshoremen’s Association Local 968 stopped working for a day in protest.[13] Cinema artists such as Fritz Lang and Bertolt Brecht registered their protest.[14]

It is thought that because the U.S. government feared Communist propaganda about anti-semitism, events were manipulated so that both the judge and prosecutor in the case were Jewish. This, however, didn't stop celebrities and communists from making claims of anti-semitism.

Although the notes typed by Ethel apparently contained little that was relevant to the Soviet atomic bomb project, this was sufficient evidence for the jury to convict on the conspiracy to commit espionage charge.

It is believed that part of the reason Ethel was indicted along with Julius was so that the prosecution could use her as a 'lever' to pressure Julius into giving up the names of others who were involved.[15] If that was the case, it did not work. On the witness stand, Julius asserted his right under the U.S. Constitution's Fifth Amendment to not incriminate himself whenever asked about his involvement in the Communist Party or with its members. Ethel did similarly. Neither defendant was viewed sympathetically by the jury.

The role played by Assistant U.S. Attorney Roy Cohn, the prosecutor in the case, is controversial. Cohn stated in his autobiography that he influenced the selection of the judge, and pushed him to impose the death penalty on both Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.

Then-U.S. Deputy Attorney General William P. Rogers, when later asked about the failure of the indictment of Ethel to leverage a full confession by Julius, reportedly said, "She called our bluff."[16]

The Rosenbergs were convicted on March 29, 1951, and on April 5 were sentenced to death by Judge Irving Kaufman under Section 2 of the Espionage Act of 1917, 50 U.S. Code 32 (now 18 U.S. Code 794), which prohibits transmitting or attempting to transmit to a foreign government information "relating to the national defense." 'The conviction helped to fuel Senator Joseph McCarthy's investigations into anti-American activities by U.S. citizens. While their devotion to the Communist cause was well-documented, the Rosenbergs denied the espionage charges even as they faced the electric chair.

The couple were the only two American civilians to be executed for espionage-related activity during the Cold War.[17] In imposing the death penalty, Kaufman noted that he held them responsible not only for espionage but also for the deaths of the Korean War:

“ I consider your crime worse than murder...I believe your conduct in putting into the hands of the Russians the A-Bomb years before our best scientists predicted Russia would perfect the bomb has already caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression in Korea, with the resultant casualties exceeding 50,000 and who knows but that millions more of innocent people may pay the price of your treason. Indeed, by your betrayal you undoubtedly have altered the course of history to the disadvantage of our country. No one can say that we do not live in a constant state of tension. We have evidence of your treachery all around us every day for the civilian defense activities throughout the nation are aimed at preparing us for an atom bomb attack.[18] ”

Their case has been at the center of the controversy over Communism in the United States ever since, with supporters steadfastly maintaining that their conviction was an egregious example of persecution typical of the "hysteria" of those times (see McCarthyism) and likening it to the witch hunts that marred Salem and medieval Europe (a comparison that provided the inspiration for Arthur Miller's critically acclaimed play, The Crucible). There is also a quotation by Ethel and Julius Rosenberg saying "We are the first victims of American fascism".

After the publication of the series in The National Guardian and the formation of the National Committee to Secure Justice in the Rosenberg Case, some Americans came to believe both Rosenbergs were innocent or received too harsh a punishment, and a grassroots campaign was started to try to stop the couple's execution. Pope Pius XII appealed to President Dwight D. Eisenhower to spare the couple, but Eisenhower refused on February 11, 1953, and all other appeals were also unsuccessful.[19]

Execution

The couple were executed at sundown in the electric chair at Sing Sing Correctional Facility in Ossining, New York, on June 19, 1953.[1][20] This was delayed from the originally scheduled date of June 18 because, on June 17, Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas had granted a stay of execution. That stay resulted from the intervention in the case of Fyke Farmer, a Tennessee lawyer whose efforts had previously met with scorn from the Rosenbergs' attorney.[21]

On June 18, the Court was called back into special session to dispose of Douglas' stay rather than let the execution be delayed for months while the appeal that was the basis of the stay wended its way through the lower courts. The Court did not vacate Douglas' stay until noon on June 19. Thus, the execution then was scheduled for later in the evening after the start of the Jewish Sabbath.[22] Desperately playing for more time, their lawyer, Emanuel Hirsch Bloch, filed a complaint that this offended their Jewish heritage — so the execution was scheduled before sunset. Reports of the execution state that Julius died after the first application of electricity, but Ethel did not succumb immediately and was subjected to two more electrical charges before being pronounced dead. The chair was designed for a man of average size, and Ethel Rosenberg was a petite woman; this discrepancy resulted, it is claimed, in the electrodes fitting poorly and making poor electrical contact. Eyewitness testimony (as given by a newsreel report featured in the 1982 documentary film The Atomic Cafe) describes smoke rising from her head.

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were buried at Wellwood Cemetery in Pinelawn, New York.[22]

Post execution

Alexandre Feklisov

According to Alexandre Feklisov, the former Soviet agent who was Julius' contact, he had not provided Russia with any useful material about the atomic bomb, "He didn't understand anything about the atomic bomb and he couldn't help us."[2]

David Greenglass

David Greenglass, Ethel Rosenberg's brother and key prosecution witness, recanted his testimony about his sister's typed notes. He stated in an interview in 2001: "I don't know who typed it, frankly, and to this day I can't remember that the typing took place. I had no memory of that at all—none whatsoever." He said he gave false testimony to protect himself and his wife, Ruth, and that he was encouraged by the prosecution to do so. "I would not sacrifice my wife and my children for my sister." He refused to express any remorse for his decision to sacrifice his sister, saying only that he did not realize that the death penalty would be invoked.[17]

The Rosenbergs' children

The Rosenbergs' two sons, Robert and Michael, were orphaned by the executions, and no relatives adopted them. They were finally adopted by the songwriter Abel Meeropol and his wife Anne, and they assumed the Meeropol surname. Abel Meeropol (under the pen name of Lewis Allan) wrote the classic anti-lynching anthem "Strange Fruit", made famous by singer Billie Holiday. Robert and Michael co-wrote a book about the experience, We are Your Sons: The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1975), and Robert wrote another book in 2004, An Execution in the Family: One Son's Journey. In 1990, Robert founded the Rosenberg Fund for Children, a non-profit foundation that provides support for children whose parents are leftist activists involved in court cases. Michael is listed as the Chair and Professor of Economics, School of Arts and Sciences, Economics at Western New England Collge in Springfield, Massachusetts. Michael's daughter, Ivy Meeropol, directed a 2004 documentary about her grandparents, Heir to an Execution, which was featured at the Sundance Film Festival.

2008 document release

In a hearing U.S. District Judge Alvin K. Hellerstein decided to make public the grand jury testimony of 36 of the 46 witnesses but not that of Greenglass. Citing the objections of Greenglass and two other living witnesses, the judge claimed that their privacy rights “overrides the public’s need to know.” Georgetown University law professor David Vladeck argued on behalf of historical groups that because of recent interviews Greenglass forfeited the privacy he now claims and that the testimony should be released. Judge Hellerstein was not moved. The testimony of the other seven witnesses will be released upon their consent, or confirmation that they are dead or not findable.[23]

Memoir of Nikita Khrushchev

Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union from 1958 to 1964, wrote of the Rosenberg's in his memoir, published posthumously in 1990. According to the memoir, Kruschchev learned from Stalin and Vyacheslav M. Molotov that Julius and Ethel Rosenberg "had provided very significant help in accelerating the production of our atomic bomb".[24]

Fictional portrayals

Ethel Rosenberg is a major supporting character in Tony Kushner's critically acclaimed play Angels in America, in which her ghost haunts a dying Roy Cohn. In the HBO 2002 miniseries adaptation of the play, she was portrayed by Meryl Streep.

In the 1992 film Citizen Cohn, she is portrayed by Tovah Feldshuh.

The E. L. Doctorow novel, The Book of Daniel, is based on the Rosenberg case as seen through the eyes of the (fictionalised) son. It inspired the Sidney Lumet film, Daniel, starring Timothy Hutton.

The other major novel dealing extensively with the case is Robert Coover's The Public Burning. Unlike Doctorow, Coover uses real names for most protagonists of the case, and uses a fictionalized Richard Nixon as his narrator for half of the chapters. This sparked a long delay in the publication of the novel, since publishing houses feared law suits from people appearing as characters in the book.

Further fictional treatments of the case are Teema Nason's fictonal autobiography "Ethel" and Millicent Dillon fictional biography "Harry Gold".

In Sylvia Plath's novel The Bell Jar her main character Esther Greenwood finds her self concerned and bothered over the Rosenberg execution while other characters seem to have little care.

The Song

In 1983 Bob Dylan wrote a song about the reaction to the Rosenberg execution and the increasing anxiety felt over the exaggerated power of the government in this case and in general.
Now that they are gone, you know, the truth it can be told;
They were sacrificial lambs in the market place sold --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Now that they are gone, you know, the truth it can come out;
They were never proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

The people said they were guilty at the time;
Some even said there hadn't a-been any crime --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

People look upon this couple with contempt and doubt,
But they loved each other right up to the time they checked out --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Eisenhower was president, Senator Joe was king;
Long as you didn't say nothing you could say anything --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Now some they blamed the system, some they blamed the man;
Now that it is over, no one knows how it began --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Every kingdom got to fall, even the Third Reich;
Man can do what he pleases but not for as long as he like --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Well, they say they gave the secrets of the atom bomb away;
Like no one else could think of it, it wouldn't be here today --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.

Someone says the fifties was the age of great romance;
I say that's just a lie, it was when fear had you in a trance --
Julius and Ethel, Julius and Ethel.
[1]

Further reading

  • Feklisov, Aleksandr, and Kostin, Sergei, The Man Behind the Rosenbergs, Enigma Books (2001) 978-929631-24-7
  • Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, The Rosenberg File: A Search for the Truth, Henry Holt (1983), hardcover, ISBN 0-03-049036-7
  • Robert and Michael Meeropol, "We Are Your Sons, The Legacy of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg," Second Edition, University of Illinois Press, 1986. [chapter 15 is a detailed refutation of Radosh and Milton's scholarship], hardcover ISBN 0-252-01263-1
  • Robert Meeropol, "An Execution in the Family," St. Martin's Press, 2003.
  • Tema Nason, Ethel: The Fictional Autobiography of Ethel Rosenberg (originally published by Delacourt, 1990, ISBN 0-440-21110-7, paperback by Dell, 1991, same ISBN, and by Syracuse, 2002, ISBN 0-8156-0745-8), a fictional account of Ethel's life and intuitively included things that came out in later accounts.
  • John Wexley The Judgment of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Illustrated Section in appendix at back of book. Text in English.[25]
  • Stanley Yalkowsky, "The murder of the Rosenbergs" Crucible Publications (July 1990) ISBN 978-0962098420

See also

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Notes

  1. ^ a b "50 years later, Rosenberg execution is still fresh", Associated Press in USA Today (2003-06-17). Retrieved on 2008-01-08. "The execution of the Rosenbergs in the electric chair at Sing Sing on June 19, 1953, ended one of the most sensational cases of the McCarthy era. It was the first execution of civilians for espionage in U.S. history." 
  2. ^ a b "K.G.B. Agent Plays Down Atomic Role Of Rosenbergs", New York Times (March 16, 1997). Retrieved on 2008-06-24. "A retired K.G.B. colonel has for the first time disclosed his role as the human conduit between Moscow and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, the two Americans who were executed for espionage in 1953 in one of the most notorious spy scandals of the cold war. Aleksandr Feklisov, 83, said in an interview today that the Rosenbergs were executed unjustly because while Julius Rosenberg did give away military secrets, he had not provided Russia with any useful material about the atomic bomb." 
  3. ^ "Greenglass, in Prison, Vows to Kin He Told Truth About Rosenbergs", New York Times (March 19, 1953). Retrieved on 2008-07-07. "David Greenglass, serving 15 years as a confessed atom spy, denied to members of his family recently that he had been coached by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the drawing of segments of the atom bomb, or that he had given perjured testimony against his sister, Mrs. Ethel Rosenberg, and her husband, Julius." 
  4. ^ "1972 Death of Harry Gold Revealed", New York Times (February 14, 1974). Retrieved on 2008-07-07. "Harry Gold, who served 15 years in Federal prison as a confessed atomic spy courier, for Klaus Fuchs, a Soviet agent, and who was a key Government witness in the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg espionage case in 1951, died 18 months ago in Philadelphia." 
  5. ^ "Morton Sobell Free As Spy Term Ends", New York Times (January 15, 1969). Retrieved on 2008-07-07. "Morton Sobell, sentenced to 30 years for a wartime espionage conspiracy to deliver vital national secrets to the Soviet Union, was released from prison yesterday after serving 17 years and 9 months." 
  6. ^ a b c Feklisov, Aleksandr; Kostin, Sergei (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma books. ISBN 1-929631-08-1. 
  7. ^ Feklisov, Aleksandr; Kostin, Sergei (2001). The Man Behind the Rosenbergs. Enigma books, 140-147. ISBN 1-929631-08-1. 
  8. ^ See Joseph Albright and Marcia Kunstell, Bombshell, Times Books, 1997 (ISBN 0-8129-2861-X) with reference to Theodore Alvin Hall and Saville Sax and their motives.
  9. ^ "Died", Time (magazine). Retrieved on 2008-06-21. "Emanuel Hirsch Bloch, 52, longtime attorney for Communist causes, who defended Atom Spies Julius and Ethel Rosenberg ..." 
  10. ^ Schneir, Invitation to an Inquest, p. 254
  11. ^ L’Humanité may 1951
  12. ^ Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1998), p.137
  13. ^ "Unions throughout U.S. joining in plea to save the Rosenbergs," Daily Worker, January 15, 1953.
  14. ^ Malcolm P. Sharp; Was Justice Done? The Rosenberg-Sobell Case; with an introduction by Harold Urey p. 132 Copyright 1954 MReview Press; Library of Congress#56-10953
  15. ^ Roberts, Sam (2001). The Brother: The Untold Story of the Rosenberg Case. Random House, 425-426,432. ISBN 0-375-76124-1. 
  16. ^ "Spies and Secrecy", New York Times (June 26, 2008). Retrieved on 2008-06-27. "No, he replied, the goal wasn’t to kill the couple. The strategy was to leverage the death sentence imposed on Ethel to wring a full confession from Julius — in hopes that Ethel’s motherly instincts would trump unconditional loyalty to a noble but discredited cause. What went wrong? Rogers’s explanation still haunts me. 'She called our bluff,' he said."  By Sam Roberts
  17. ^ a b "False testimony clinched Rosenberg spy trial", BBC (6 December 2001). Retrieved on 2008-07-30. "Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were the only people in the United States ever executed for Cold War espionage, and their conviction fuelled US Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-communist crusade against "anti-American activities" by US citizens." 
  18. ^ "Judge Kaufman's Statement Upon Sentencing the Rosenbergs". University of Missouri–Kansas City. Retrieved on 2008-06-24.
  19. ^ The Straight Dope: Were Ethel and Julius Rosenberg Soviet spies?
  20. ^ "Execution of the Rosenbergs", The Guardian (June 20, 1953). Retrieved on 2008-06-24. "Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed early this morning at Sing Sing Prison for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia in World War II." 
  21. ^ "Nashville now and then: A lawyer's last gamble", NashvillePost.com (2007-06-17). Retrieved on 2007-08-08. "Farmer, working at no charge against the opposition of not only the government but also the Rosenbergs' legal team, had showed up at Douglas's chambers without an appointment, on the day after the high court adjourned for the term. Farmer convinced the jurist that the Rosenbergs had been tried under an invalid law. If they could be charged with any crime, he asserted, it would have to be a violation of the Atomic Energy Act, which did not carry a death penalty, rather than the Espionage Act of 1917." 
  22. ^ a b "Executed At Sundown, 50 Years Ago.", New York Times (June 20, 2003). Retrieved on 2008-06-23. "Even then, they were not much more than a name on a broad headstone: Rosenberg. One more name out of thousands, representing all those souls on their journey through forever at Wellwood Cemetery, along the border between Nassau and Suffolk Counties. ... Usually at Sing Sing, the death penalty was carried out at 11 p.m. But that June 19 was a Friday, and 11 p.m. would have pushed the executions well into the Jewish Sabbath, which begins at sundown. The federal judge in Manhattan who sentenced them to death, Irving R. Kaufman, said that the very idea of a Sabbath execution gave him 'considerable concern.' The Justice Department agreed. So the time was pushed forward." 
  23. ^ "Judge hears case for historic Rosenberg spy trial", Associated Press, New York Daily News. Retrieved on 2008-07-30. "The judge reserved decision regarding the testimony of seven missing Rosenberg witnesses pending further efforts to confirm that they are either dead or will never be located. He also said he needed more information before ruling on a request to disclose grand jury material from another Cold War spy case, that of Abraham Brothman and Miriam Moskowitz." 
  24. ^ "Khrushchev on Rosenbergs: Stoking Old Embers", [[ Robert D. McFadden ]], New York Times (2008-09-25). Retrieved on 2008-08-13. "Nearly four decades after Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for conspiring to pass America's atomic bomb secrets to the Soviet Union, the case that has haunted scholars, historians and partisans of the left and the right has found a new witness: Nikita S. Khrushchev." 
  25. ^ Published by Bookville London by arrangement with Cameron Associates New York in 1956 with no ISBN

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